Historical diets: livestock farming from the Neolithic to Modernity

During the Neolithic era, the food supply became increasingly reliant on the domestication of plants and animals, marking a pivotal shift from hunter-gatherer to agrarian societies. Farming spread from Anatolia into southeastern Europe around 6,000-7,000 BC, and then into the rest of Europe around 4,000 BCE, paving the way for the Copper Age.

Around 4,500 BCE, settled Neolithic farmers entered into intercultural exchanges with Yamnaya pastoralists from the Pontic Steppes, which catalyzed innovations in livestock management, dairying, and food processing. By the third millennium BC, these developments led to a complex European genetic and cultural mosaic, blending ancestries from hunter-gatherers, farmers, and pastoralists. 

Livestock in early farming communities held immense value, serving purposes that extended beyond food to include traction, manure production, and cultural and religious significance.

Early agricultural societies produced only small amounts of animal-sourced foods, relying heavily on cereals that lacked nutritional variety. This dietary imbalance led to significant health challenges, with a shift from the relatively robust health of hunter-gatherers to the malnutrition, high fertility, and population booms and busts characteristic of early agrarian societies. 

The dominance of cereal-based diets in the Neolithic era had profound consequences for health. Malnutrition, infectious diseases, reduced stature, poor bone health, dental caries, and nutritional deficiencies became prevalent. Iron deficiency, particularly in young children, likely became more common due to the lower bioavailability of nutrients in cereal-heavy diets. The transition also increased exposure to pathogens due to denser living conditions and close contact with domesticated animals, contributing to the emergence of epidemics. 

Despite these challenges, animal-sourced foods like meat and dairy remained important in Neolithic diets. Sites like Çatalhöyük, dating back 8,000 years, reveal that meat played a significant role even in early agrarian communities. Over time, particularly during the Bronze Age, the supply of animal products stabilized and diversified, with dairy products becoming increasingly prominent. 

In some periods and regions, the consumption of animal-sourced foods may have exceeded current levels in Western diets, challenging assumptions about their scarcity in ancient agrarian societies. Yet, the nutritional limitations of early agriculture underscore the importance of nutrient-dense foods, a challenge that continues to influence food systems and public health today.

In the Middle Ages, diets across Western Europe varied greatly depending on social status, regional resources, and agricultural conditions. In affluent areas, such as late Medieval Barcelona, access to animal-sourced foods was common. Monastic diets were similarly rich, incorporating meat, eggs, and fish several days a week. However, poorer populations often faced malnutrition, especially during times of dearth, relying primarily on cereals and occasional animal protein. 

In Britain, one of the best-documented regions, the wealthy consumed substantial quantities of meat and fish, including diverse dishes made from venison, beef, pork, and mutton. Tradespeople and artisans typically ate meat daily, but peasants relied heavily on bread, dairy, and modest portions of bacon or fowl, supplemented by pulses, onions, and cabbages. Coarse bread formed the dietary foundation. Despite limited fresh vegetables and fruits, households often kept livestock, including cows, pigs, and poultry, which supplemented diets during good harvests. During food shortages, however, reliance on preserved foods, such as salted fish, pickled herring, and bacon, increased. Community cookshops played a vital role, preparing pies and baked meats for those without kitchen facilities. Despite challenges, the 15th century saw improved diets for many villagers due to increased availability of beef, mutton, and veal. Yet, by the mid-16th century, hardships returned, forcing a greater reliance on bread, legumes, and gathered foods. 

These medieval patterns of resource availability and dietary stratification offer insights into the modern persistence of cereal-heavy diets in many regions, particularly in the Global South. While industrialized nations enjoy abundant animal-sourced foods, many developing countries continue to grapple with imbalanced diets shaped by local agricultural and economic constraints.

Pastoralist communities have historically enjoyed consistent access to animal-sourced foods, thanks to their reliance on livestock for sustenance. Dairy products like milk, cheese, yogurt, and butter formed the backbone of their diets, providing essential nutrients and energy. Meat, while less frequently consumed, was typically reserved for special occasions, sacrifices, or times of scarcity, ensuring livestock remained a sustainable resource. Blood, particularly in communities like the Maasai, was another renewable food source, often mixed with milk for nourishment. Seasonal availability influenced access, with peak dairy production occurring in spring and summer, while preserved foods like dried meat and aged cheese provided sustenance during lean periods. Trade played a crucial role in supplementing pastoralist diets, as surplus animal products were exchanged for grains, fruits, and vegetables from neighboring agricultural societies. In mixed economies, some pastoralists integrated small-scale farming to enhance dietary diversity. 

Environmental conditions shaped livestock preferences, with camels and goats thriving in arid regions, reindeer sustaining Arctic herders, and yaks supporting Himalayan communities. Cultural practices also influenced dietary patterns, with taboos or rituals often dictating how and when certain foods were consumed. Despite their resourcefulness, pastoralists faced challenges like seasonal shortages, harsh climates, and socio-political disruptions. Colonialism, land enclosures, and sedentarization policies frequently undermined traditional practices, reducing their access to animal foods. 

Modern pastoralists continue to rely on livestock for sustenance, though climate change and grazing land loss pose increasing threats. Throughout history, their adaptive strategies have enabled them to thrive in diverse and often extreme environments, offering insights into sustainable food systems that balance subsistence with resource management.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, animal-sourced foods became increasingly accessible in industrializing Western countries, marking a significant shift in dietary patterns. Advances in agricultural practices, such as crop rotation and selective breeding, boosted livestock productivity. Simultaneously, innovations like canning and refrigeration revolutionized food preservation, enabling long-distance transport and year-round availability of perishable items like meat and dairy. Improved logistics, such as the expansion of railroads and shipping networks, allowed urban centers to meet the growing demand for animal products, further boosting accessibility. This nutritional transition coincided with a marked increase in human stature and overall health, as higher intakes of energy, protein, and micronutrients from animal foods addressed common deficiencies. The industrialized production of milk, cheese, butter, and meat contributed significantly to dietary adequacy, particularly for the working class, who previously had limited access to these foods. In turn, this period saw declines in diseases related to malnutrition, such as rickets and pellagra. Over time, however, the diets of industrialized nations evolved into what is now referred to as the Western diet, characterized by high intakes of animal products alongside increasing quantities of highly processed foods, refined carbohydrates, and added sugars. This dietary shift introduced new health challenges, such as rising rates of obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes. The industrial era also witnessed the advent of dietary guidelines, which began to shape public perceptions and policies surrounding animal-sourced foods, often with mixed interpretations of their health implications. In the modern era, the legacy of 18th- and 19th-century dietary changes persists, with animal-sourced foods remaining a cornerstone of many diets worldwide. However, growing concerns about sustainability, ethical considerations, and health impacts continue to spark debates about their optimal role in contemporary food systems.